Final research paper written for ENG 221: Peer Tutoring in Writing with Dr. Lynne Ronesi. Spring 2017, American University of Sharjah (BSc).
Grade: 95%
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Introduction
“What makes us human? What separates man from the beasts? […] Is it walking upright? But orangutans walk upright. Is it language?”
–Harlan Lane, Secret of the Wild Child, 1994.
In the year 1970, the tragic story of a 13 year old girl from California, who was victim to one of the most severe cases of child abuse in modern history, became the centre of public attention and served as a pedestal for one of the most important studies on the development of language (Larmon, 1994). For 12 years of her life, Genie was kept in complete isolation and with little to no outside stimulation of any kind; she had not developed a language (Larmon 1994). From 1970 to 1978, she was under the care of researchers (Jones, 1995), yet despite the minimal progress she made in learning language and normal human behaviour, Genie never fully recovered (Friedman & Rusou, 2015). Final accounts of Genie were at her 29th birthday party, where she was described as being “miserable, stooped and seldom made eye contact” (Carroll, 2016). She is 59 now and her exact current whereabouts are unknown.
Genies story, which I will continue to discuss later in this paper, exemplifies the importance of language not only in integrating into society, but in defining us as humans. Due to severe neglect and trauma, Genie lacks one of the most crucial tools at our disposal – language. As a result, she must live her entire life under the care of those more capable. What does the fate of Genie imply about us as human beings? Evolving over millions of years, we have become the dominant most intellectual beings on the planet. Part of the reason for this is because our brains have features that are unlike any other living being on the planet – the Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas (Yule, 2014). Together they form the language centre, the areas of our brains where we can comprehend and produce speech and language (Yule, 2014); Genie likely lacked crucial development in these areas. Unlike her, we can communicate thoughts, form strong social bonds and aggregate into societies.
There are a multitude of theories on how we came to be the most dominant species, the theory of evolution and natural selection and their underlying implications being the most widely accepted by scholars around the world. But how did language come to be? Language is immensely complex and its development is still not fully understood. It is arguably one of the most powerful tools at our disposal. We now know that there are evolutionary, social and political factors that affected and still continue to affect its development. English is the leading and dominant global language today. Understanding the socio-cultural influence of it around the globe and the history of language and how it evolves provides insight on how it is changing today and on what we can expect from the future. Therefore this study attempts to answer the questions: Why is language important and how did the evolution and development of language culminate in the English language’s global significance today?
Neanderthals vs. Humans
Before discussing the English language, it is important to understand the origins and evolution of language. Genie has on multiple occasions been described as “feral”, “wild” and some may even go as far as to describe her as “primitive”. Was it her lack of language and primitive behaviour that made her case so debilitating? This was certainly the case for early humans and may be no different today. Over 3500 years ago the ancient ancestors of modern humans, the Cro-Magnons, co-existed with a related hominid species known as the Neanderthals (Gibbons, 1992). Indeed, it was the extinction of Neanderthals, Homo sapien neanderthalensis followed by the takeover of the Homo sapien sapiens that highlights the importance of language and speech. There are a number of morphological reasons Neanderthal men were inferior to the Cro-Magnons such as the skull size and brain size differences (Gibbons, 1992). Furthermore, anthropological evidence shows that they were shorter, stouter and possessed a “dim-witted” appearance (Bryson, 1990). However one of the more important differences, yet less obvious, is the position of their larynx, also known as the voice box. It is believed that Neanderthals were possibly capable of speech but because of their larynx, which was positioned much higher than humans, it was very limited; they were incapable of “uttering certain basic sounds such as the /ē/ sound of bee or the /oo/ sound of boot” (Bryson, 1990). Our descended larynxes paved way for complex, sophisticated speech that the Neanderthals lacked (Bryson, 1990). As such, modern humans outcompeted Neanderthals because of our ability to engage in far more complex and sophisticated activities. Because of complex speech, early humans were able to “devise more specialized tools [and] hunt in a far more systematic and cooperative way” (Bryson, 1990). On the other hand, Neanderthal speech was simple and limited, which is reflected in their simpler tools and hunting habits (Bryson, 1990). Language is therefore an important indicator of our ancestors lives in the past. Furthermore, it is the differences in the complexity of language between us and our Neanderthal cousins that ultimately decided our fates – our survival and their extinction. Although language is not the only hypothesised driving force that lead to the Neanderthal man’s extinction, it is one of the most important.
The Tree of Language
It is impossible to know exactly what languages were spoken thousands of years ago and whether or not the Neanderthals did in fact have a simple language. There has been evidence to support that Neanderthals did in fact have sophisticated speech that rivals the Cro-Magnons, where fossil findings in 1989 show throat bones of the Neanderthals were “virtually identical to a modern human’s” (Gibbons, 1992). However, the language of the Neanderthals, if it ever existed, died along with the species with no known remnants of it existing today. Needless to say, there are many theories as to where human language came from. For example, there is the “bow-wow” theory and “pooh-pooh” theory both relating to language originating from the sounds that we hear, from onomatopoeic origins and from “natural cries of emotion” respectively (Yule, 2014). Furthermore, human morphological traits evolving over thousands of years allowed for more sophisticated speech. The development of bi-pedalism, streamlined features, the shape of our teeth, lips and mouth, and as we have already clarified, the position of the larynx, all play a crucial role in our ability to produce speech (Yule, 2014).
As early humans migrated from their place of origin in Africa, and spread throughout the world developing distinctive features and traits, they also developed distinctive languages; languages that have for the most part been assumed completely unrelated (Bryson, 1992). However, cognates in seemingly completely unrelated language families originating in opposite ends of the world have been found. Basque, a European language speculated to be the “last surviving remnant of the Neolithic languages” has similarities to “Na-Dene, an Indian language spoken mainly in the northwest United States and Canada” (Bryson, 1992). How can two languages that have little to no connection to one another have cognates, if not because of an original language family? This is one idea noted by Merrit Ruhlen, a linguist specialising in evolution of language theorises, that “all the world’s languages ultimately belong to a single language family” (Bryson, 1992). Thus, a tree of language can be hypothesised, similar to Darwin’s tree of life, in which the thousands of languages that exist today have branched out from a single root.
Nature vs. Nurture
Genie’s case shed light on the long standing unresolved argument of the innateness of language, whether learning a language is innate or if in circumstances like Genie’s, it could be learned. For the majority of her childhood, Genie was quarantined from society and deprived of essential human interaction; her father forbade anyone speaking near or around her (Larmon 1994). In 1967 Lenneberg proposed a “critical age for first-language acquisition” (Curtiss et al., 1974) which some studies have shown “ends during the first year of life” (Friedmann & Rusou, 2015). If one is lacking in essential “language input” early in their life, such as with Genie, language development will be severely impaired (Friedmann & Rusou, 2015). That is not to say Genie’s case was hopeless; five months after her admission to the hospital, she begun to utter single words spontaneously (Curtiss et al., 1974). By November 1971, one year after admission, she was able to “produce sentences of three or four words” albeit on rare occasions (Curtiss et al., 1974).
As previously mentioned, the debate of nature versus nurture regarding the acquisition of language is inconclusive. Is it written in our genes or can it be learned through a complex nurturing process? Studies show foetuses in the womb are already able to perceive language and that “neonates show a preference for languages they head in utero” (Friedmann & Rusou, 2015). Yet Genie’s case proves that to some extent, language can be learned past the critical age of first language acquisition. Of course, many scientists believe language acquisition involves both adequate environmental stimuli at a young age as well as healthy neuronal development of the brain thus involving both natural and nurturing processes (Gervain, 2015). It is Genie’s lack of language that earned her titles like “feral”, “wild” and “primitive” yet it was the inhumane actions of her family that resulted in her state to begin with.
As we can see, the origin of language is immensely complex. To understand language is to understand human development both from evolutionary and physiological standpoints. The psychological role in language development is as equally fundamental in understanding language. As Gervain (2015) puts it language is “uniquely a human ability”. To reiterate, we can communicate thoughts, form strong social bonds and aggregate into societies. Thousands of years after the first words were spoken – the root of all languages grew and branched helping create the rich, diverse and globalised world we live in today.
The Origin of English
The “evolution” of English is an intriguing topic to explore. For one, it is now a global language; according to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, some 2 billion people in the world use English (Crystal & Potter, 2016). Unlike any other language, understanding how it has developed highlights some interesting questions. How did the English language achieve its global significance today? Will it be the global language in the future?
One of the most important factors in the English language’s rise to power is the social and political power of the people speaking it. It is a prime example of the interconnectedness of all languages. English as we know it originated in what is now the country of England. Yet looking into its history, its vernacular has been influenced by involvement from the Romans, Latins, Germans, French and many more (McIntyre, 2009). English has not always existed as we know it today for the obvious reason that language evolves over time. In fact, the very word English is not derived from the English language that we speak today; it comes from the Old English equivalent Engla lande which stems from the term Angli referring to the Angles who dominated the country at the time of the language’s conception (McIntyre, 2009). The fact that the name of the language we speak today is derived from the people who were most in power provides insight into the hidden power of politics on language development. As McIntyre (2009) puts it, “political power has always had an influence on the prestige of particular dialects.” Studying history will undoubtedly spark debate amongst those studying it. Information is only available through mere observation of artefacts and the unreliable and highly subjective accounts of those who have recorded it. As such, there are several different sources available that argue that the Anglo-Saxons (previously described as the Angles) had forcibly dominated England in the past. Furthermore, some argue that it was in fact the Saxons, not the Angles who had dominated the country after the Romans left (Bryson, 1990). Regardless, the influence of political power remains the same in either case.
Religion has played an equally fundamental role on the development of the English language. As already mentioned, the Angles, or rather the Anglo-Saxons, who had migrated to England following the departure of the Roman empire were not only a political influence but a religious one as well. They had brought with them paganism which is evident in the names of our week days, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday and Friday, all of which “commemorate the [pagan] gods Tiw, Woden, Thor and Woden’s wife, Frig” (Bryson, 1990). Another study, conducted by Alexander Inglis in 1925, 14 centuries after the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons, demonstrates the lasting effect historical events have had on our language. Language has evidently developed considerably since the 5th century yet his study showed that 23% of the 10,161 words were of Anglo-Saxon origin (Inglis, 1925). The lasting power of language is astounding, where the political and religious influences of people living centuries ago are still prevalent today.
From Past to Present
Taking into account the immensely rapid influence that the English language has had around the globe in our more recent history shows how the power of language is becoming increasingly more prevalent. In his book, History of Language, McIntyre (2009) states, “It has always been the case that the language variety used by the group that has a considerable degree of political and economic power will be viewed as more prestigious”. The English language has undergone two major changes, first from old English to Middle English and then from Middle English to early modern English. Interestingly, the transition of old English to Middle English was at a time when English had lost its prestige and French was the dominant language of England as a result of the Norman Conquest (McIntyre, 2009). Several social factors such as trade, inter-marriages, and “code-switching” (mixing of two languages) between the French speaking and old English speaking individuals resulted in the “hybrid nature of English” (McIntyre, 2009).
The transition of Middle English to early modern English, simplified as “The Great Vowel Shift” is a much more complex and debated topic as compared to the transition from old English to Middle English (McIntyre, 2009). This is because, unlike the latter, it was likely due to several factors rather than influenced by a single “triggering” event such as the Norman Conquest (McIntyre, 2009). Nevertheless, the external factors i.e. the political, social, and religious factors remain fundamental to its change. It has been hypothesised that the Great Vowel Shift, was partly caused by the prestige of upper social classes’ variety of English influencing the lower classes’ own pronunciations of words (Labov, 1979 as cited in McIntyre, 2009). This can be likened to the evolutionary theory of “survival of the fittest” in which the “fittest” or rather more prestigious language survives, and the weaker language either adapts or dies out.
The timeline for the development of the English language from old to modern spans centuries however there is a common denominator that influences change regardless of time. Political, social and religious factors have all played a fundamental role in its development and continue to do so today.
Into the Future of English
The English language as we know it and its multiple varieties in different parts of the world can be attributed to colonialism. It began with the founding of America by settlers from England, Spain, France, Germany, Ireland and many more countries resulting in the “new varieties of English emerging from the cultural mix” (McIntyre, 2009). Following the War of Independence for the United States, the British Empire proceeded to expand and colonise the rest of the world – Canada, the Indian subcontinent, Africa and Australasia (McIntyre, 2009). Unsurprisingly, power does not only influence the evolution and development of language but the spread of language as well. Before the effects of globalisation were felt, a large portion of the world had already been exposed to the English language and in many ways influenced by it. Globalisation is a result of growing interconnectedness between countries around the globe. The English language was able to achieve its status by the achievements of its speakers; technological advancements and cultural and social power of English speaking countries such as the United States has had a global influence (McIntyre, 2009). Whether or not it will be the global language in the future is, of course, still debated. The development of all languages is gradual and continuous. As humans continue to connect socially, politically, religiously and economically, language will continue to be impacted and will gradually change. English has travelled down the path of power; perhaps it will continue to do so or perhaps another language will take its place.
Conclusion
A common theme in this paper is that of power. The forces that drove the evolution and development of language are complex and many but all involve the fight for power or fight for survival. Yet despite these power struggles and their negative connotations, one can take comfort in knowing that the interconnectedness of language will always remain prevalent. As such, the interconnectedness of humanity is deep rooted in language, where every day that we speak we commemorate societies and cultures that had brought people together in the past. Since its conception, language has been continually moulded by human beings. It forms a symbiotic relationship with people; it both influences and is influenced by us. Thus, as humans continue to grow, so shall language.
References
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